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Reading Development Theory
Complete a 5 - 7 page paper on your understanding of reading development. Use at least 5 citations as sources for your paper. Texts from this course may be included. You will need to answer the following questions in the context of your paper: David Profitt University Of Dayton Word Document Here Benchmarks Reading development can be thought of as a staircase, with each step signifying greater skill and ability. Each year throughout a student’s education, which comprises more than just the formal schooling years, the student is expected to proceed to higher steps on this staircase. For most children, before kindergarten, the climb has already begun. Many parents read to their children, so their children know what a book and text is. They may not be able to decipher the text, but most children understand that the characters and symbols on the pages of a book tell the story. Additionally, many children have an understanding of the ABCs as being those characters, though the specific meaning and sound of each letter may not be known at this pre schooling age. The following shows which benchmarks, or steps, children should reach throughout the formal schooling years. Grade Two Benchmarks: By grade two, students have been introduced to and have had many reading ideals reinforced to them throughout the years. By this age, students should be proficient at understanding the basic message of text and should be able to retell and retain the sequence of stories they have read (http://www.atchison.k12.ks.us/PDFs/Communications/Reading%20and%20Writing%20K-2.pdf). The second grade reader, when faced with new vocabulary, should be able to relate sounds to symbols (letter and letter combinations) in familiar and unfamiliar words, and use context clues to help determine the sound of unfamiliar words. The reader should also be able to recognize common words by site. The second grade student should read fluently, both orally and in silent readings. Part of the fluency of silent reading and comprehension is the use of prior knowledge. The student should ask (maybe not consciously) questions such as “What do I want to learn?” and “What have I learned?” as they read. Grade Five Benchmarks: Expanding on what should have been proficient as of grade two, grade five students should be able to do the following. In the area of comprehension, students should be able to identify a correct restatement of the main idea; identify details to support their understanding; connect predictions with information read; compare and contrast information in different texts; link causes to effects; use various parts of a book (table of contents, appendix, and glossary) to locate information; and identify text organizers such as headings, topics, summary sentences, and graphic features ((http://www.atchison.k12.ks.us/PDFs/Communications/Reading%20and%20Writing%203-5.pdf). Students should be able to draw conclusions from texts read and should be able to identify common topics in different texts. In the area of vocabulary, students should be able to use context clues such as definitions, restatements, and examples to determine meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary. Fifth grade students should be able to use synonyms, antonyms, homographs, and homophones and dictionaries or glossaries to determine the meaning of confounding vocabulary. Grade Eight Benchmarks: By grade eight, students will have fine tuned many reading skills and will have been developing writing skills for a few years. Focusing on reading proficiencies, students of this age will be able to comprehend texts read in that they will be able to make inferences from the text; differentiate between main ideas and supporting details; identify text structures such as cause and effect, comparison and contrast, sequence, description, problem and solution, and narration; identify facts and opinions from a list of statements; and follow directions explained in technical writings (http://www.atchison.k12.ks.us/PDFs/Communications/Reading%20and%20Writing%206-8.pdf). In vocabulary comprehension, students will use context clues such as definitions, restatement, example, comparison and contrast, to determine meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary (this is also listed as a proficiency for grade five, but the vocabulary referred to in both would be appropriate for each grade level, and therefore would represent new skills in higher grades); infer word meanings by the use of relationships such as analogies, similes, and metaphors; apply thesaurus, glossary, and dictionary skills to determine the appropriateness of word meaning; and identify and/or use multiple meanings of words. The eighth grade student will identify a theme in a narrative text or a topic in an expository text and evidence that supports conclusions drawn from a single text. In the genre of literary concepts, the student will be able to identify elements of fiction such as initiating event, characters’ goals, attempts, and outcomes; draw conclusions about story elements such as theme, plot, setting, and character; recognize the use of literary devices such as foreshadowing, flashback, and figurative language; and recognize elements of exposition such as definition with example, cause and effect, comparison and contrast, description, and sequence. Graduation Benchmarks: By graduation, students are often near the top of their developmental staircase as many students will not progress beyond this level of formal learning. For those who do, there are still many benchmarks which have not been mastered, but most will have been introduced throughout the high school years. In most cases, many of the benchmark proficiencies listed here have been met earlier in the high school years, and the twelfth grade year can be one of knowledge exploration and acquisition as the student utilizes his or her finely honed skills and develops new skills. The grade twelve benchmarks are as follows: In comprehension, students should be able to differentiate between stated and inferred main ideas and supporting details; differentiate between fact and opinion in a passage of text; identify the author’s point of view or bias; analyze the text for structures such as cause and effect, comparison and contrast, sequence, description, problem and solution and narration; and analyze concepts in technical writing (http://www.atchison.k12.ks.us/PDFs/Communications/Reading%20and%20Writing%209-12.pdf). The student will continue with vocabulary mastery techniques previously listed and additionally will be able to use analogies to expand vocabulary and to distinguish connotations from denotations and synonyms from antonyms. Students will be able to compare and contrast themes common in different texts, locate evidence from several texts to support a conclusion and evaluate conclusions by linking prior knowledge to context of text. In the genre of literary concepts, the student will be able to identify the elements of fiction and drama such as rising and falling action, conflict and resolution, major and minor characters, setting, theme, and climax; make inferences and draw conclusions about story elements such as style, theme, plot, setting and character; recognize use of more complex literary devices such as tone, irony, mood, satire, symbolism, allusion, dialogue, diction, character’s point-of-view, archetype, and Though we can not control the effectiveness of parents’ pre-school cultivating, as educators, we do have the responsibility of developing the curriculums which will take children through the majority of their younger lives. Traditionally, the early years have involved either the whole language approach or phonics (http://www.edweek.org/context/topics/issuespage.cfm?id=101). The whole language, or meaning based approach has an emphasis in total reading comprehension. Children learn words as individual units and ascribe meaning to words within the context of the sentences and paragraphs surrounding them. The whole language approach parallels learning to read to learning to speak. The parts are learned by studying the whole. Phonics, or skill based instruction, teaches reading in an opposite direction. Rather than learning whole words by studying them in a larger context, students learn the parts of words first. By learning the individual sounds and letter combinations that make up words, advocates believe that children will better be able to figure out new vocabulary when they are older. The instruction of phonics is traditionally quite rigid and methodological. The current thoughts are not ones of “which method is the best” but rather “what combination of the two methods is best?” There is evidence which says that for some, early introduction of phonics is beneficial. Whole language approaches can be added to supplement knowledge of the basics. For at risk students, a traditional, systematic phonics background equates to better performance (Foorman et al., 1998). This has led to phonics being included as one of the five essential elements of effective reading instruction as stated by the National Reading Panel. The other four are phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.htm). Also, contrary to popular thinking, research shows that even kindergarten children benefit from phonics, therefore the discipline should be started early. Because it is often difficult at this early age to determine which students may have future difficulty, phonics should be used with all students because of its proven effects with at-risk populations. It is not only the teaching of reading that aids students, but it is well known that the practice of reading aids in the development of fluency. It is for this reason that oral reading exercises are helpful, especially during the elementary years (Pressley, 2001). As reading materials get more difficult, continued practice will help earn mastery at these higher levels. Interestingly, however, Pressley notes that the same positive effects are not shown with silent reading. Other research contradicts Pressley and states that silent reading does aid in the development of fluency (Reutzel & Cooter). Whichever the case, it is agreed that if a child is taught to see reading as an activity to enjoy, he will typically be much more fluent than the child who sees reading as merely the putting together a puzzle of letters. This could help explain why the less fluent reader is often found with more difficult materials and is being told to “sound it out,” whereas the more fluent reader is often found with simpler texts and is being told to “focus on making sense of the text.” The more a student reads simple texts, the more fluent he or she will be at reading difficult texts as that student will have had time to develop his skills. Vocabulary mastery is another facet of reading which knows no point of completion. Computers have been shown to be a valuable tool in the teaching of vocabulary. In studying vocabulary, learning words and then seeing those words in texts will better solidify the new materials. This shows that vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly, both with repetition and multiple methods. Similar to vocabulary instruction, the teaching of reading comprehension must involve a myriad of strategies to be most effective. In the older school years, the teaching of a foreign language has been shown to be helpful in improving the reading and literacy skills of the first language. Often, learning to fully express words in a foreign language causes an increase in first language vocabulary knowledge. Just knowing the importance of variety in methods is not enough to assure reading success. Studies show that regardless of the methods used, it is often the aptitude of the teacher that assures the future success of the students (Reutzel & Cooter, 2003). The best prevention of reading difficulties is the proper training and competence of teachers, regardless of what methods they use. Well trained teachers will know how children learn both in general, and in the areas of reading. These teachers will be able to tailor their skills to the needs of each individual child. Also, before entering formal schooling, parents can assist in preventing reading difficulties. Children who enter school lacking knowledge in the areas of phonological sensitivity, the basic purposes and mechanisms of reading, and language ability, are often plagued by future reading problems when compared to peers who were given these basic foundations at home (http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/prdyc/ch5.html). Several school systems now have screening tests designed to show school readiness, and others have raised the required age for admittance into kindergarten (http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/prdyc/ch8.html). Many students, however, don’t show signs of reading difficulties, or their difficulties are not discovered, until after the prevention timeline has passed. For these children, an intervention is required which will bring them up to level. For these students, there are several teaching methods which have proven effective (http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/prdyc/ch8.html). Computer based programs teaching phonological awareness skills and programs teaching comprehension strategies have both proven to be effective. However, much like with the teaching of phonics, the students who are taught phonological awareness skills fair better over the long run and combining methods and strategies proves best over all. One-on-one tutoring techniques, such as those used in the “Reading Recovery” program are also shown to be effective. These one-on-one methods, sadly, are very costly and therefore are not currently available to many students, especially those in lower SES settings. Also, as noted in preventing reading disorders, the training of the tutors is highly correlated to the gains of the students. For older students, “Read 180” has been shown to be effective, sometimes showing a two-year growth in one school year (http://lv.ccsd15.k12.il.us/lv/wc/hp.nsf/PreviewHomePages/paradiseh), though it is expensive for school systems, costing $20,000.00 for a mere 60 student license (http://www.edweek.org/sreports/tc99/articles/summary-s1.htm). One typically unprofitable method used to aid students who have fallen behind is grade retention. Retention often results in a greater likelihood of eventual school dropout, not improved grades or abilities. To pull everything together, there are a few keys which appear to apply to all students. First, an early start is crucial. Parents need to be educated to read to their children from an early age. Teaching children their ABCs and even the sounds those letters make can be a great preventative tool against future reading troubles. Second, a multi-disciplined approach involving phonics should be taught from kindergarten on. It is important that teachers also be well trained in the various methods of reading instruction. A competent teacher can do more to aid students than a less trained teacher, no matter what supplies and monies are afforded to the lesser trained teacher. When intervention becomes necessary, one-on-one instruction in addition to normal classroom instruction seems to be most beneficial. As with teachers, tutors should be well versed in reading instruction and methods used should be vibrant and multi-disciplinary. For older students, reading materials must be age appropriate, exciting, progressive and utilize both narrative and expository, informational readings, such as those used in math social studies or sciences (http://www.eduplace.com/intervention/soar/articles/cooper.html). Finally, if the intervention is not working, it should be discontinued and another method of instruction should be tried. Atchison Public Schools (n.d.). Atchison Public Schools: Curriculum by grade area. Retrieved June 19, 2003, from http://www.atchison.k12.ks.us/accreditation/curriculum.html Cooper, J.D., McWilliams, J., Boschken, I., & Pistochini, L. (2002). Stop reading failure. Houghton Mifflin Company. Retrieved June 22, 2003, from http://www.eduplace.com/intervention/soar/articles/cooper.html Education Week (May 23, 2003). Education Week: Reading. Retrieved June 19, 2003, from http://www.edweek.org/context/topics/issuespage.cfm?id=101 Fatemi, E. (September 23, 1999). Technology Counts ’99: Building the digital curriculum. Retrieved June 22, 2003, from http://www.edweek.org/sreports/tc99/articles/summary-s1.htm Foorman, B.R., Francis D.J., Fletcher, J.M., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 37-55. National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (September 4, 2002). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: Findings and determinations of the National Reading Panel by topic areas. Retrieved June 20, 2003, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.htm Pressley, M. (2001). Effective beginning reading instruction: Executive summary and paper commissioned by the national reading conference. Chicago, IL: National Reading Conference. Read 180. (n.d.). Retrieved June 22, 2003, from http://lv.ccsd15.k12.il.us/lv/wc/hp.nsf/PreviewHomePages/paradiseh Reutzel, D. R. & Cooter, R. B. (2003). Strategies for reading assessment and instruction: Helping every child succeed. (2nd Ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall. Snow, E., Burns, M. S. & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved June 21, 2003, from http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/prdyc/ch5.html and http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/prdyc/ch8.html Filed under: EDC 541 Curriculum and Instruction for Diverse LearnersCopyright: June, 2003 - David Profitt |
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